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Academics and English Language Acquisition

LOTE Department

Oceanview Middle School

Because of the demographics of schools in Guam schools must find a way to successfully educate students whose primary home language is not English to compete in the modern, competitive world. Failure to do so would result in an under-educated, under-employed cadre of young adults.

 Measuring Success

 Success for second language learners is defined as “English learners reaching eventual full educational parity with native-English speakers in all school content subjects (not just in English proficiency) after a period of at least 5-6 years” (Thomas & Collier, 1997, p. 7).

 The problem is that students learning English as a second-language are trying to catch moving targets: native English speakers do not stand still academically and wait for English as a second language students to master English. The goal of ESL instruction must be to help English language learners (ELL) to eventually match the achievement levels of native English speakers in all areas of the curriculum.

 What constitutes English proficiency? There are two levels of second language development:

 1. Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) development, or the skills

necessary to interact in everyday social settings. Development of BICS in a second

language usually takes two to three years.

 2. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), the more complex cognitive and

academic language proficiency needed to negotiate in academic settings (Cummins,

1981). Cummins and others have determined that it takes five to seven years to develop

cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) in a second language.

The linguistic processes going on in CALP are considerably more complex and abstract than those going on in BICS. Accordingly, their complexity requires increased time to master. As stated earlier, development of CALP in English takes LEP students five to seven years.

Development of English BICS usually takes less than three years, as the necessary socially oriented linguistic environment is almost always present. CALP can only occur in a cognitively stimulating and academically oriented environment.

Research by Virginia Collier (1995, 2001) indicates that secondary LEP students in traditional English as a second language (ESL) programs in which development in social English is emphasized, do not do as well on standardized tests in English as do students in ESL programs in which academic English is emphasized.

Proficiency

 To help LEP students reach their academic potential, the instructional program for students learning English as a second language must include:

 ♦ Time: LEP students need more time to learn the cognitive academic English. Two years in an ESOL program is not long enough to provide students with the additional educational support they need to be successful in school and on standardized tests. Research consistently confirms that it takes 5-7 years to develop CALP.

 ♦ Academic focus: The learning environment of LEP students should be academically rich. Instructional strategies for LEP students should link English language development to academic content. Instruction for ESOL students needs to focus not on oral, social

language, but on academically related language, as proficiency in oral communication does not predict proficiency in content/academic language.

 First Language Schooling

 Thomas and Collier (1997) confirmed that first language (L1) schooling is the key variable in studies on the “how long” question. Students who arrived in the United States between ages 8 and 11, who had received at least 2-5 years of schooling in their primary language (L1) in their home country, were the lucky ones who took only 5-7 years to master CALP.

 Those who arrived before age 8, who had little or no schooling in their native language, required 7-10 years or more. Those arriving after age 12 with good formal schooling in L1 made steady gains, but by the end of high school they had run out of time to catch up academically with native-English speaking students, who were making constant progress. Most who continued on to college did eventually catch up.

 Younger students may make dramatic gains in the early grades, but generally don’t continue to maintain those gains once they are exited from special services. Estimates are that 30-40% of school-age English language learners fail to reach acceptable levels of English reading by the end of their elementary schooling. (Thomas & Collier, 1997.) These students often fall behind the typical achievement levels of native-English speakers due to limited schooling in their first language. This frequently results in significant, cumulative achievement gaps by the end of high school.

 It is crucial to monitor ELL’s progress once they are in the mainstream and move into cognitively more demanding and complex work in middle school and high school.

In addition, research indicates that a second language can be acquired as readily by adults as by children. The only obstacle to learning a second language is not having learned a first language by puberty (Bralystok and Hakuta, 1996). Given mastery of a first language, the transfer of literacy skills from L1 to L2 and mastery of one or more additional languages is beyond the reach of no one at any age.

Educational models for Second Language Acquisition

The traditional belief: Structural linguists characterize listening and speaking as primary

linguistic functions, and reading and writing as secondary linguistic functions dependent on the former. The rationale for this model was based largely on the fact that, while all peoples of the world possess oral language, not all possess BICS CALP written language proficiency.

Structural linguists greatly influenced first and second language

teaching. In many classrooms, listening and speaking skills are taught first, followed by reading skills, and then writing skills.

The currently accepted belief: There are many arguments against employing the structural

linguistics model of second language acquisition. People don't master hearing before seeing. People constantly use both eyes and ears together to bring meaning to the world. Spoken language consists of sounds that are perceived by the ear and interpreted by the brain.

Likewise, written language consists of shapes that are perceived by the eye and interpreted by the brain. One is not more complex or primary than the other.  Here, listening/speech and reading/writing are parallel functions of language. Speech is an act that is an attempt to represent language (Falk, 1973). In a similar way, writing is an act that represents language.

In order to develop cognitive academic language proficiency, schools must  simultaneously encourage both oral and written English language development among LEP students. Students reciting the Pledge of Allegiance have been heard to say, “I pledge a legions to the flag of the United States of Ameriga and to the Republicans for witches stand…” By involving more modalities, by speaking and seeing the words simultaneously, students can distinguish the actual vocabulary; learning is not only accelerated, but is more meaningful, and is retained.

Therefore, instruction in written English should occur simultaneously with oral instruction in English, and vice-versa. Research supports this approach.  Development in both BICS and CALP develop within a community (Curran, 1975). Early educational theorists believed that students learned by listening to the finer minds of society, gaining knowledge from all that teachers had to offer.

In this model, the teacher is at the center (or front) of the room. The students interact only with the teacher, listening to the teacher's lecture and answering questions that the teacher asks when checking for understanding. Students are physically separated from each other and lined up in rows, and do not interact with each other. Tests measure how closely students can restate what the teacher has taught.

This instructional model has been handed down from generation to generation. Most of today’s teachers were taught-- and continue to teach in that manner. Unfortunately, that model is not the best method to encourage linguistic development.

Language acquisition is essentially a social activity, and it is critical to second language

acquisition. Meaningful interaction is the key. Students placed in structured classrooms where the teacher does most of the talking, and the activities are mostly written, have little chance for meaningful interaction or language development (Richard-Amato, 1996).

In 1972, Charles Curran proposed an alternative educational model, known as Counseling-Learning. While Curran agrees that the teacher has knowledge that the students need, he puts the students in the center to decide for themselves what they wish to learn. He also sees students as learning in a community of students, all supporting each other along the path of learning. The teacher not only has the information the students desire to learn, but also the counseling skills necessary to see students through times of doubt.

Inspired by Curran’s Counseling-Learning model, the teacher/facilitator in this model is still at the center. Here however, the teacher does not interact with individual members of the class. Rather, the teacher interacts only with the groups. Members of each group organize themselves so that as the teacher calls on their group to respond to questions or to report on tasks completed, each member will know when it is his turn to speak to the teacher. That person does not speak for himself, but for the group, and the group can assist the speaker even as the response is being made to the teacher.

If the response is correct, the group is correct. If it is incorrect, the group is incorrect and it is the job of the members of the group, as a community, to figure out what went wrong.

Educational Implications

Steven Krashen and T. Terrell developed the Natural Approach to second language acquisition (SLA). This method is employed in many ESL programs in the U.S.  This method proposes a shift in ESL curriculum from one that is grammar based to one that is communicative based.

In discussing the Natural Approach, Krashen lists three points:

1. Language acquisition is a subconscious process similar to the way children learn their

first language. Language acquirers do not focus on the language being used during

interaction with another person, but rather on the content and purpose of the interaction.

Language acquisition develops naturally.

2. Language learning, where learning is "...the conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing the rules, being aware of them and being able to talk about them" (p. 10). Language learning, as opposed to language acquisition, is what goes on in most public school foreign language classrooms.

3. “Reading for meaning, especially free voluntary reading, is comprehensible input, and is the source of much of our competence in literacy, our reading ability, writing style, much of our vocabulary and spelling competence, and our ability to use and understand

complex grammatical constructions” (Krashen, 1997. p. 5). Reading is particularly helpful

because “the more comprehensible input people obtain in the target language, the more

acquisition takes place” (p. 6).

4. Just as students learn language skills by reading, Krashen believes that for those writing in both their first and second languages, the best predictor of writing quality is the

amount of reading done. There is no evidence linking writing ability to the formal study of

grammar or to the study of the structure of expository prose, topics generally emphasized in composition classes. The act of writing itself helps the writer come up

with new ideas and insights, but writing style and mastery of most of the conventions of

writing comes from reading.

Students interested in developing a clear writing style need to read lots of good writing.  According to Krashen, learned knowledge is only used to monitor language performance, and actually slows down performance as the speaker references forms and rules. In Krashen’s second language acquisition (SLA) classroom, instruction focuses on both the language necessary to understand and communicate the content, and on the content itself as a means of increasing content-related English and academic proficiency. In this way, target language development as well as academic language development would occur naturally. The cognitive demands placed upon students will govern the kind of English they acquire.

Most of language cannot be reduced to teachable rules. Language can only be internalized through interactional processes in a relevant, meaningful environment. Without that, no matter how well rules are taught, language will not be learned because it isn’t relevant.

 Richard-Amato (1996) provides the following example:

We say in the car. When we say on the car, we mean on top of the car. But yet we say

on the boat, which means in the boat if it has a roof. To get even more complex, we say

on the ceiling. Using logic, one would think we mean on top of the ceiling. However,

what we mean is under the ceiling and attached to it. Although there are rules governing

these differences, they are for the most part subconscious (p. 51)

.

Considerations

♦ Sociocultural processes: The individual student is at the center of all discussions

concerning second language acquisition. Self esteem, anxiety, and other affective factors must be considered. Prejudice, fear, and acculturization can all affect a student’s response to learning a new language.

♦ Language Development: To assure cognitive and academic success in a second language, a student’s first language, both oral and written, must be developed to at least the comparable level of native-English speaking peers.

♦ Academic Development: With each succeeding grade, academic work increases in

complexity. Postponing or interrupting academic development is likely to promote academic failure in the long term.

♦ Cognitive Development: Cognitive development occurs developmentally from birth

throughout all schooling. Cognitive development in L1 should continue through the

elementary years. Switching a student’s language of instruction causes a cognitive

slowdown for ELLs for several years—while native English speakers continue to develop at normal rates. ELLS need special assistance if they are ever to catch up.

Instructional implications

Thomas and Collier, writing for the Center on Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence (CREDE), in a five-year study (1996-2001), found

♦ The minimum amount of time it takes students with no English proficiency to reach gradelevel L2 performance is 4 years. They should not be placed in short-term programs of 1-3 years.

♦ Only ELLs with at least 4 years of L1 schooling reach grade level performance in L2 in 4 years.

♦ The strongest predictor of L2 achievement is the amount of formal L1 schooling. Students who receive at least 4-5 years of grade-level L1 schooling in the home language do better than students with no primary language schooling.

♦ Individuals do not learn to read twice. They acquire the vocabulary of the target language and then transfer the skills involved in reading from their first language to the target language.

♦ ELLs do not close the achievement gap after reclassification and placement in the English mainstream. Instead, they maintain or widen the gap in later years. Therefore, their achievement at reclassification should be as high as possible, since that is likely to be the

highest achievement level that they reach during their school years. Teacher preparation is another important consideration.

Reading and ESL education programs have historically been designed to serve two distinct populations. ESL teachers need to know more about literacy development—and reading specialists need to know more about strategies for first and second language acquisition. If “regular” teachers regard the varying cultural backgrounds and languages of ELLs as “deficits” or “handicaps,” lower expectations may exist for the achievement of language-minority learners.

 However, even awareness and sensitivity of cultural differences is not enough to improve academic proficiency. If fundamental instructional problems are not addressed, language minority children will continue to be over-represented among those performing poorly in school (Grant & Wong, 2003).

Students who have limited English proficiency may:

♦ Have apprehension about speaking.

♦ Resist participation in activities.

♦ Perceive physical closeness differently.

♦ Refrain from seeking help.

♦ Avoid eye contact.

♦ Prefer to work in cooperative learning activities.

Recommendations

The Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence (FLaRE) Center lists the following research-based characteristics of effective literacy instruction practices for ELLs.

Teachers should:

♦ Strive for a balance between meaning and skills.

♦ Utilize a variety of approaches.

♦ Hold positive perceptions of students’ language, culture, family, and community.

♦ Have positive expectations for student achievement.

♦ Not discourage students’ use of non-standard language forms to express themselves

.

♦ Allow use of L1 in the classroom. “Limiting opportunities to learn in their first language will limit their cognitive growth and related academic achievement” (Garcia, 2002, p. 248).

♦ Incorporate students’ prior cultural knowledge and experiences.

♦ Incorporate culturally relevant materials.

♦ Use collaborative and cooperative learning, and hands-on activities.

♦ Incorporate writing in dialog journals and logs.

♦ Use multiple forms of assessment.

♦ Understand the impact of acculturation and second language acquisition.

♦ Learn student’s names, and the correct pronunciation.

♦ Create a warm, welcoming, risk-free atmosphere.

♦ Adjust instruction and assignments, and provide additional English support or tutoring

whenever possible.

Additional suggestions include:

♦ Provide effective ESL two-way instruction

􀂃 Instruction should be comprehensible to all learners

􀂃 Learning should be interactive

􀂃 Instruction should be cognitively challenging

􀂃 Instruction should connect school to students’ reality

􀂃 Instruction should develop language across the curriculum

♦ Language and content teaching

􀂃 Language development and content knowledge are interdependent. One does not exist without the other.

􀂃 Effective two-way teachers teach content from a language arts perspective.

♦ Why is content teaching difficult?

􀂃 Curriculum assumes prior historical, geographical, and civic knowledge

􀂃 Culturally based values may be very different

􀂃 Specialized vocabulary often refers to abstract concepts

􀂃 Discourse is primarily expository

􀂃 Instructional modifications of textbook materials are often required

♦ Oral language development

􀂃 is the essential initial step in two-way lesson development

􀂃 involves listening and speaking, reading and writing activities.

􀂃 encourages student to student interaction & extended discourse, thus increasing oral

language development

♦ Literacy development

􀂃 Vocabulary extension is the natural and necessary bridge between oral language

development and literacy

􀂃 Literacy becomes comprehensible when the vocabulary involved in the reading is

identified and taught directly or through context.

􀂃 Involves purposeful reading and writing activities

􀂃 Individuals do not learn to read twice. They acquire the vocabulary of the target

language and then transfer the skills involved in reading from their first language to the

target language.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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